(This is an archived extract from the book Patterns of Power: Edition 2)
Rousseau contended that every person needed to be personally active in politics and that it was inappropriate to rely upon representation.[1] In particular, he argued that people could attempt to dissociate themselves from a law if they had not been present in person when it was approved.
Whilst a direct personal involvement would appear to be logically better than relying upon representatives (i.e. professional politicians), it depends upon an unrealistic view of human nature. Most people don’t want to spend a lot of time on politics – they are naturally more interested in their own affairs than in public administration. Those who are very interested in politics either become politicians themselves or they put pressure on politicians: either directly (6.4.2.1) or by use of the media (6.4.3), or by participating in interest groups (6.4.4). Everybody else relies upon being represented by other people who are more motivated, and who are perhaps more knowledgeable, than themselves.
People who rely upon others to represent them have not wholly given up their freedom if they can appoint politicians of their own choosing and if they can dismiss those who turn out to be unsatisfactory. There are practical problems in achieving this ideal in any political system – as discussed later in this chapter (6.8.2) – but even if it were possible there are other shortcomings in using politicians as representatives:
· Politicians may further their personal interests, or the interests of those who have put pressure on them (6.4.6), rather than the interests of the community that they represent.
· People who don’t want to spend a lot of time on politics may nonetheless want their specific views to be put forward on some issues.
· The political system acts as a buffer between the people and those who are providing public services. If the system is working well, politicians should be able to act as interpreters and negotiators in the interests of the people – but they might merely prevent clear communication.
As described below, these problems of representation can be mitigated: by involving individual citizens (6.5.2), by consulting them (6.5.3), and by distributing political power through appropriate subsidiarity (6.6.2).
© PatternsofPower.org, 2014
[1] Rousseau, in The Social Contract, Book 3, chap. 15, wrote:
“Sovereignty, for the same reason as makes it inalienable, cannot be represented; it lies essentially in the general will, and will does not admit of representation: it is either the same, or other; there is no intermediate possibility. The deputies of the people, therefore, are not and cannot be its representatives: they are merely its stewards, and can carry through no definitive acts. Every law the people has not ratified in person is null and void -- is, in fact, not a law. The people of England regards itself as free; but it is grossly mistaken; it is free only during the election of members of parliament. As soon as they are elected, slavery overtakes it, and it is nothing. The use it makes of the short moments of liberty it enjoys shows indeed that it deserves to lose them.”
The book was available in May 2014 at http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/RouSoci.html.